WHAT IS PARAPSYCHOLOGY?
Three main kinds of alleged paranormal phenomena (called psi) are studied in parapsychology:
- ESP (Extra-Sensory Perception) - knowledge without the use of ordinary senses
- PK (Psychokinesis) - mind over matter
- SOC (Survival Of Consciousness) - life after death, communication with dead people, reincarnation, near-death experiences, out-of-body experiences
Three main kinds of ESP:
The Historical Context of Parapsychology
The Origins of Parapsychology
The origins of parapsychology include a number of Red Flags, facts that indicate that critical thinkers should be skeptical about parapsychology claims.
Healthy skepticism about parapsychology claims does not mean refusing to consider evidence and arguments supporting such claims, which would amount to dogmatic skepticism. Healthy skepticism about parapsychology claims means that critical thinkers should be cautious about such claims and carefully examine the evidence and arguments presented for such claims, and should require strong and clear evidence before accepting parapsychology claims.
A major milestone in the history of parapsychology is the founding of The Society for Psychical Research (SPR) in England in 1882 by William Barrett and Edmond Rogers. Barrett and Rogers were both spiritualists:
Barrett was a Christian and spiritualist member of the SPR. Although he had founded the society, Barrett was only truly active for a year, and in 1884 founded the American Society for Psychical Research. He became president of the society in 1904 and continued to submit articles to their journal.[1]
About 1843 Rogers was introduced by Sir Isaac Pitman to the work of Swedenborg. He went on to study mesmerism and mesmeric healing. He began to attend séances in 1869 with various mediums, especially Mrs Thomas Everitt and William Eglinton, and became a spiritualist. In 1873 he helped to form the British National Association of Spiritualists, and in 1881 founded the spiritualist journal Light, which he edited from 1894 until his death in 1910. In 1881–1882 he founded the Society for Psychical Research, with Sir William Barrett.[2]
The SPR still exists today, and according to its website, it was the first "learned society" formed to conduct scientific research into psychical and spiritualist phenomena:
In January 1882, a conference was held in London to discuss the viability of setting up an organisation to carry out formal scientific research into these matters. The following month the SPR was founded, the first learned society of its kind, with the purpose of investigating mesmeric, psychical and ‘spiritualist’ phenomena in a purely scientific spirit.[3]
The fact that both Barrett and Rogers, the founders of SPR, were spiritualists leads us to the first three Red Flags of Parapsychology:
- The Nature of Spiritualism
- The Origin of Spiritualism
- The Origin of SPR in 1882
RED FLAG #1: THE NATURE OF SPIRITUALISM
Spiritualism is a religious movement that began in the mid 1800s:
Although the stated purpose of the SPR was to investigate psychical and spiritualist phenomena by means of objective scientific investigations, the fact that both founders of SPR were involved in the same religious movement, and a religious movement that involved belief not only in life after death, but in communication with the dead by the living, casts doubt on the objectivity of the research conducted by the SPR.
Both founders of the SPR were religious believers who thought that living people can communicate with dead people. They were not skeptical about supernatural communication with dead spirits, nor were they merely neutral on this question. They were religious believers who were part of a religious movement that promoted the belief that living people can communicate with the spirits or ghosts of dead people.
This fact alone gives critical thinkers a good reason to be skeptical about the claims of parapsychology.
This is analogous to the fact that the founders of Scientific Creationism were all fundamentalist or conservative evangelical Christians. Their belief that the theory of evolution is false, and that life has existed on the Earth for only a few thousand years appears to be based on their religious beliefs, and on their literal interpretation of the Biblical account of creation in the book of Genesis. Scientific creationism was not driven by objective scientific investigation; it was driven by religious beliefs.
The religious bias of the founders of Scientific Creationism, however, does not prove that they are wrong. Their view of the origin of life and of the origin of species might be correct. A critical thinker should not simply ignore the evidence and arguments of Scientific Creationists. That would be dogmatic skepticism. However, the obvious religious bias of the founders of Scientific Creationism does provide a good reason for critical thinkers to approach the claims of Scientific Creationism with healthy skepticism. The same is true of how critical thinkers should approach parapsychology claims.
RED FLAG #2: THE ORIGIN OF SPIRITUALISM IN 1848
As previously noted, spiritualism has roots in shamanism and its origin has been traced to the Fox sisters in 1848:
Most people in the 21st century recognize that shamanism is an ancient superstition that existed among primitive peoples around the world for thousands of years, prior to the advent of modern science. Most modern people no longer view bad weather, natural disasters, physical disease, or mental illness as being the result of the actions of evil spirits, the way that primitive peoples did for thousands of years. The fact that spiritualism has roots in such ancient superstitious beliefs provides critical thinkers with a good reason to be skeptical about spiritualist phenomena and claims.
Furthermore, the important role of the Fox sisters in the origin of spiritualism also provides a good reason for critical thinkers to approach the phenomena and claims of spiritualism with healthy skepticism:
However, it turned out that the rapping of alleged ghosts was a hoax conducted by the Fox sisters for money and fame[4]:
Beginning in 1850, some critics concluded that the girls made the rappings themselves, including physician E. P. Longworthy, John W. Hurn, Reverend John M. Austin, and Reverend D. Potts. In 1851, the Reverend C. Chauncey Burr wrote in the New-York Tribune that by cracking toe joints the sounds were so loud, they could be heard in a large hall. In the same year, investigators from the University at Buffalo concluded that the raps were made by cracking joints of their body and that the raps would not occur if they had cushions under their feet.
In 1851, Mrs. Norman Culver, a relative of the Fox family, admitted in a signed statement that she had assisted them during their séances by touching them to indicate when the raps should be made. She also claimed that Kate and Margaretta revealed to her the method of producing the raps by snapping their toes and using their knees and ankles.
Charles Grafton Page, a patent examiner and patent advocate, had developed a keen eye for detecting fraudulent claims about science. In his book Psychomancy (1853), Page observed that the rapping sounds came from underneath the girls' long dresses. In 1857, the Boston Courier set up a prize of $500 to any medium who could demonstrate a paranormal ability to their committee. The Fox sisters made an attempt and were investigated by a committee which included the magician John Wyman. The committee concluded the raps were produced by bone and feet movements and thus the Fox sisters failed the challenge. A report by the Seybert Commission in 1887 stated that after investigating various mediums including Margaretta, the phenomena could have easily been produced by fraudulent methods. The report noted that the raps were heard close to Margaretta and a séance sitter, Professor Furness had felt pulsations in her foot.
In 1888, Margaretta publicly revealed that the rappings were a hoax:
In 1888, the two sisters traveled to New York City, where a reporter offered $1,500 if they would "expose" their methods and give him an exclusive on the story. Margaretta appeared publicly at the New York Academy of Music on October 21, 1888, with Kate present. Before an audience of 2,000, Margaret demonstrated how she could produce—at will—raps audible throughout the theater. Doctors from the audience came on stage to verify that the cracking of her toe joints was the source of the Sound.
Margaretta told her story of the origins of the mysterious "rappings" in a signed confession given to the press and published in New York World, October 21, 1888. In it, she explained the Hydesville events.
Because spiritualism has roots in the ancient superstition of shamanism, and because the origin of the spiritualist movement was based largely on a hoax conducted by the Fox sisters, we have a good reason to be skeptical about the phenomena and claims of spiritualism.
RED FLAG #3: THE ORIGIN OF SPR IN 1882
Critical thinkers have good reason for healthy skepticism about parapsychology claims because of the origin of The Society for Psychical Research (PSR) in 1882.
First, this organization was formed when the religious movement of spiritualism was rapidly spreading in England and internationally. Second, both of the founders of SPR were involved in the religious movement of spiritualism. Third, as we have seen, there is good reason to be skeptical about the phenomena and claims of spiritualism. Finally, SPR was the first "learned society" to promote scientific investigation into psychical and spiritualist phenomena. So, the origin of SPR is a major milestone in the origin of parapsychology.
Given that the origin of SPR has strong roots in the religious movement of spiritualism, and given that the founding of SPR is a major milestone in the origin of parapsychology, we have good reason to be skeptical about parapsychology claims.
RED FLAG #4: THE FIRST INVESTIGATIONS BY THE SPR
RED FLAG #5: THE ORIGIN OF THE DUKE PARAPSYCHOLOGY LAB IN 1930-1935
RED FLAG #6: THE FIRST INVESTIGATIONS BY THE DUKE PARAPSYCHOLOGY LAB
END NOTES
1. From the Wikipedia article "William F. Barrett":
2. From the Wikipedia article "Edmund Rogers":
3. From the "Our History" article on the SPR website:
4. From the Wikipedia article "Fox sisters":
